Background: The Context of Interwar Europe and the Crisis of Democracy
The period following the First World War was marked by deep social, economic, and political instability across the Western world, laying fertile ground for the emergence and spread of extremist ideologies such as fascism and national socialism—of which Hitler’s Nazism was a prominent variant. Economic problems were acute: hyperinflation, unemployment, and the devastations of the Great Depression undermined faith in democratic institutions and created an environment ripe for radical alternatives. The Treaty of Versailles, with its harsh terms imposed on Germany, also sparked widespread nationalist resentment and grievances that were not limited to Germany but echoed across Europe.
The Commonality of Hitler's Core Political Views
Hitler's political views were fundamentally grounded in extreme nationalism, a virulent form of racial and ethnic hatred, anti-communism, opposition to liberal (parliamentary) democracy, and the assertion of an authoritarian state governed by a single leader (the Führerprinzip). These views included beliefs in the superiority of the so-called Aryan (Germanic) race, antisemitism targeting Jews as scapegoats, anti-Slavism, opposition to left-wing ideologies, and calls for national rebirth and territorial expansion (Lebensraum). Central to Hitler’s worldview was the rejection of both liberal democracy and socialism (in its Marxist sense), favoring instead a “people’s community” (Volksgemeinschaft) defined by ethnic and racial purity and led by a charismatic, unchallengeable leader.
While the specifics of Nazi ideology were peculiar to Germany, the broad themes of authoritarianism, militant nationalism, contempt for democratic systems, and scapegoating minorities were echoed in many other countries in the Western world during the same period. The rise of far-right mass movements and political parties with similar doctrines was one of the defining features of the interwar years.
The Spread of Fascism and National Socialism Across Western Countries
The ideological elements championed by Hitler were not exclusive to Germany but formed the essential core of fascist and national socialist movements that emerged in numerous Western countries before World War II. Italian Fascism under Benito Mussolini (founded in 1919) was the original template for these movements and was soon joined by more radical manifestations, most notably German Nazism, but also by a host of political parties and paramilitary organizations throughout the Western world.
These parties and movements often espoused:
Militant and ethnocentric nationalism, seeking to unify citizens based on race, ethnicity, or national identity while excluding and demonizing minorities and political opponents.
Authoritarian or totalitarian leadership structures, rejecting democracy in favor of a strong, centralized leadership cult.
Cultivation of mass mobilization, using propaganda, rallies, and uniforms to create a sense of unity and power through participation in state-engineered spectacles.
Use of violence and paramilitary groups to intimidate opponents, disrupt democratic processes, and destabilize governments.
Anti-communism and a staunch opposition to socialism, except in the regime's redefined, often racially or corporatist forms.
Propagation of hatred—especially antisemitism, but also directed at other minorities and "out-groups"—often as a means of solidifying in-group identity and managing social unrest.
Formation of Fascist and National Socialist Political Parties Across the West
Virtually every major country in the Western world developed political parties or mass movements inspired by or aligned with these ideologies during the interwar period. Some prominent examples include:
Italy National Fascist Party Founded, led by Mussolini; first fascist regime.
Germany National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) Led by Hitler; combined fascism with extreme racial doctrine.
Britain British Union of Fascists (BUF) Led by Oswald Mosley; pro-German, anti-Semitic.
Austria Vaterländische Front, Heimwehr; later National Socialist movements Modeled on Mussolini’s fascism and later aligned with Nazi Germany.
Hungary Arrow Cross Party Nazi-aligned, antisemitic, paramilitary.
Croatia Ustaše Fascist puppet regime, responsible for genocide.
France Parti Populaire Français, Croix-de-Feu, others Various far-right, authoritarian nationalist groups.
Belgium, Netherlands Rexist Party, National Socialist Movement Fascist, anti-democratic, collaborated with Nazis during WWII.
Norway Nasjonal Samling Led by Vidkun Quisling; Nazi-collaborationist.
Chile National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNS) Hitler-inspired, openly fascist.
United States German American Bund and various smaller groups Pro-Nazi organizations, though never as influential as in Europe.
These parties were often united by their rejection of parliamentary democracy, use of violence, and the cult of the leader, frequently employing uniforms, paramilitary groups, and mass demonstrations to signal their strength and discipline.
The Threat to Democracy Across Western Democracies
The rise and proliferation of these parties posed severe threats to democratic systems in virtually every Western country. Their strategies included undermining elected governments, encouraging political polarization, and exploiting economic crises to foster disillusionment with the existing order. In the most extreme cases—first in Italy, then in Germany—these parties succeeded in undermining or outright dismantling democratic regimes, replacing them with one-party dictatorships. In other countries, such as Austria, Hungary, Spain, and Portugal, authoritarian rulers drew upon fascist or national socialist rhetoric and policies, often by banning opposition parties, curtailing civil liberties, and suppressing dissent.
Even where fascist parties did not seize power outright, their influence was substantial:
In France, persistent political instability and the activities of far-right leagues contributed to the weakening of the Third Republic.
In Britain, the British Union of Fascists stirred up racial and political tensions, prompting the government to ban political uniforms and restrict paramilitary activity.
In the Low Countries and Scandinavia, far-right movements exploited both nationalist and anti-communist sentiments, pushing mainstream politics to the right and undermining public trust in democracy.
In Latin America, parties such as the National Socialist Movement of Chile appropriated fascist iconography and discourse, threatening local democratic institutions.
These parties, whether or not they seized state power, normalized anti-democratic and exclusionary rhetoric, weakened the legitimacy of liberal democracy, and destabilized already fragile political systems. They often exploited alliances with conservative elites who viewed them as a bulwark against socialism and communism, underestimating the fascists’ intent and capacity to dismantle democracy altogether.
The Pan-Western Crisis and Its Resolution
The failure of democratic government in the interwar period was not limited to Germany but reflected a pan-Western crisis, marked by polarization, governmental instability, and the resort to authoritarian solutions. The widespread embrace of parties inspired by fascism and national socialism resulted in a broad and often violent challenge to democracy on a continental scale. In countries where democracy survived (such as Britain, Scandinavia, and the United States), the challenge prompted strong legal and political resistance to extremism, often leading to reforms or the marginalization of openly fascist movements.
The catastrophic consequences of these movements becoming dominant in Germany and parts of Europe ultimately led to a postwar reaction against fascism and racism, enshrining anti-racism and human rights in Western political values and institutions. Yet for the crucial years preceding the Second World War, the threat posed by the ideas and political methods exemplified by Hitler was real and widespread, affecting every Western democracy in one form or another.
