Resolution 2231 (2015) restricts Iran’s nuclear program and ballistic missile activities, but its enforcement has faced challenges due to differences in interpretation and geopolitical tensions [1][2].  

Ballistic Missile Tests  

Iran conducted multiple ballistic missile tests after 2016, which the U.S., UK, France, and Germany claimed were "inconsistent" with Resolution 2231’s call for restraint [2]. However, the resolution’s language—urging Iran to refrain from such activities—was deemed non-binding, preventing punitive measures [2][5].  

Arms Transfers  

In 2019–2020, UN reports linked Iranian-origin drones and cruise missiles to attacks in Saudi Arabia, which the U.S. argued violated the resolution’s restrictions on arms exports. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Western nations accused Iran of supplying drones to Russia, claiming it breached paragraph 4 of Annex B, which prohibits transfers contributing to nuclear weapons delivery systems. Iran contested this, asserting its drones lack nuclear capability and thus fall outside the resolution’s scope.  

Snapback Mechanism  

In 2020, the U.S. attempted to trigger a "snapback" of UN sanctions under Resolution 2231 following the expiration of the arms embargo, but faced opposition from other Security Council members who questioned U.S. authority after its earlier withdrawal from the JCPOA. This procedural dispute left sanctions unenforced, leading the U.S. to unilaterally reimpose measures [2].  

Limited Consequences  

While the resolution allows reinstating prior sanctions for non-compliance, political divisions in the Security Council prevented unified action [2]. Efforts to hold Iran accountable have largely relied on unilateral sanctions by the U.S. and EU, rather than multilateral enforcement. Resolution 2231’s non-binding language on missiles and the expiration of key restrictions (e.g., arms embargo in 2020, missile tech sanctions in 2023) further weakened accountability mechanisms [3].  

Iran maintains its actions are self-defense and permissible under Resolution 2231, claiming nuclear and missile activities are peaceful [6][8]. Diplomatic efforts to address violations remain stalled, with the resolution set to conclude in October 2025 unless extended [9].

Netanyahu’s Opposition to the Iran Nuclear Deal  

Netanyahu lobbied Trump to abandon the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), arguing it failed to curb Iran’s nuclear program and allowed Tehran to pursue military ambitions [6][32]. He asserted the deal enabled Iran to develop ballistic missiles and fund regional proxies, calling it a “recipe for disaster” [30].  

Public Campaign Against Iranian Nuclear Activities  

In 2018, Netanyahu presented evidence at the UN claiming Iran had covertly pursued nuclear weapons, urging Trump to reinstate sanctions and withdraw from the JCPOA [30][32]. These efforts aligned with Trump’s own criticisms of the deal, culminating in the U.S. withdrawal in May 2018, which Netanyahu praised as “historic” [30][35].  

Post-Deal Advocacy for Maximum Pressure  

After the U.S. withdrawal, Netanyahu supported Trump’s “maximum pressure” campaign, including sanctions targeting Iran’s oil exports and Revolutionary Guard Corps [6]. He framed Iran’s ballistic missile tests and regional proxy activities as violations of UN resolutions, though Resolution 2231’s restrictions on missiles were non-binding [6][7].  

2025 Intelligence Warnings and Strategic Alignment  

By 2025, U.S. intelligence indicated Israel planned preemptive strikes on Iran’s nuclear sites, reflecting Netanyahu’s long-standing advocacy for military action [1][8]. Trump acknowledged Israel’s intent but preferred diplomacy, stating, “I would prefer [Israel] not bomb the hell out of them” [2]. Netanyahu’s government continued framing Iran’s nuclear advances as existential threats requiring U.S.-Israeli coordination [8][9].  

Limitations of Netanyahu’s Influence  

While Netanyahu’s warnings influenced Trump’s Iran policy, U.S. intelligence assessments doubted the efficacy of Israeli strikes, estimating they would delay Iran’s program only “by weeks or months” [2][8]. Strategic divergences emerged, with Trump’s team exploring diplomatic channels while Netanyahu prioritized military options [2][9].

Secret Atomic Warehouse  

Netanyahu revealed a covert facility in Tehran, alleging it stored 300 tons of nuclear-related equipment and materials, including 15 kg of radioactive material removed in 2018. Satellite imagery and seizure of documents from a nearby site in 2018 supported this claim [2].  

Stolen Nuclear Archive  

In April 2018, Israel obtained 55,000 pages of documents and 183 CDs from an Iranian warehouse, detailing *Project Amad* (a discontinued nuclear weapons program). Files included blueprints for warheads, uranium enrichment plans, and test simulations [12].  

Technical Evidence  

- Warhead Designs: Sketches of "spherical devices" for nuclear detonation, similar to designs examined by the IAEA in 2008 [5][8].  

- Missile Integration: Documents outlined modifications to Iranian missiles to carry 10-kiloton nuclear warheads [8][12].  

- Radiation Contamination: Netanyahu cited Iran’s removal of 15 kg of radioactive material from the warehouse, detected via intelligence [2].  

Counterarguments and Limitations  

- Timing of Materials: Much evidence predated the 2015 nuclear deal, focusing on activities suspended by 2003.  

- IAEA Assessment: While Netanyahu claimed Iran hid weapons research, the IAEA verified compliance with the 2015 agreement until 2018 [2][6].  

- Iranian Denial: Tehran dismissed the evidence as fabricated and "propaganda," accusing Israel of coordinating with the U.S. to sabotage the deal [6].  

International Reactions  

The U.S. validated the archive’s authenticity, using it to justify withdrawing from the JCPOA in 2018 [5][7]. European allies acknowledged the findings but upheld the nuclear deal, arguing it neutralized Iran’s capabilities.

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