The Hermeneutics of Divine Affection: A Comprehensive Exegesis on the Summarization and Fulfillment of the Law and Prophets through the Great Commandments
1. Introduction: The Theological Crisis of the First Century
The interrogation of Jesus of Nazareth regarding the "greatest commandment" was not an isolated academic inquiry but a flashpoint in a centuries-long theological crisis within Second Temple Judaism. The Jewish people, living under Roman occupation and navigating the pressures of Hellenization, were consumed by the struggle to define the essence of covenant fidelity. The Torah, comprising the 613 distinct commandments (mitzvot) identified by later rabbinic tradition, presented a formidable complex of moral, civil, and ceremonial obligations. Within this matrix, the diverse sects of the period—Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots—engaged in a fierce hermeneutical battle to establish a Klal Gadol, a "Great Principle" or summary statement that could serve as the interpretive key for the entirety of divine revelation.1
This report offers an exhaustive analysis of Jesus’ response to this foundational question. By fusing the Shema of Deuteronomy 6:4-5 with the neighbor-love mandate of Leviticus 19:18, Jesus provided not merely a summary of the law but a structural reorientation of the entire biblical canon. This bipartite command—to love God with the totality of one's faculties and to love the neighbor as oneself—serves as the peg (krematai) upon which the Law and the Prophets depend.4 This analysis will explore the linguistic, historical, and theological dimensions of this teaching, arguing that Jesus presents agape not as an alternative to the Law, but as its teleological fulfillment (plerosis), transposing the external code into an internal reality that satisfies the divine requirement in a manner the sacrificial system never could.6
1.1 The Sectarian Context: Hillel, Shammai, and the Qumran Community
To grasp the radical nature of Jesus’ formulation, one must situate it against the backdrop of contemporary Jewish thought. The desire to summarize the Torah was a known pedagogical exercise. The Talmud records a famous encounter involving Hillel the Elder (c. 110 BCE – 10 CE), a preeminent Pharisaic sage. When challenged by a Gentile to teach the entire Torah while standing on one foot, Hillel replied: "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the entire Torah; the rest is the explanation; go and learn".8
Hillel’s formulation, often termed the "Silver Rule," is essentially negative in character—a constraint against maleficence. While noble, it differs categorically from the positive imperative Jesus issues. Jesus’ "Golden Rule" (Matthew 7:12) and his citation of Leviticus 19:18 demand active benevolence, a dynamic pursuit of the other’s good that moves far beyond the mere avoidance of harm.10 Furthermore, the Qumran community, authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls, operated under a dualistic ethic. They taught members to "love all the sons of light" (their own sect) but to "hate all the sons of darkness" (enemies of the sect, including other Jews and Romans).12
In this charged environment, where "neighbor" was often defined by sectarian loyalty and exclusion, Jesus’ coupling of the vertical command (love of God) with a universalized horizontal command (love of neighbor) constituted a theological revolution. It rejected the isolationism of Qumran and the negative passivity of the Silver Rule, establishing a positive, universal ethic grounded in monotheism.13
2. The Vertical Axis: Exegesis of the Shema and the Totality of the Self
The foundation of Jesus’ ethical system is uncompromisingly theological. Before any instruction on human relations can be given, the relationship with the Divine must be established. Jesus initiates his response by citing the Shema of Deuteronomy 6:4-5: "Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one".1 This monotheistic confession is the prerequisite for the command to love; because God is One, the human response must be singular, undivided, and total.
2.1 The Hebraic Anthropology: Levav, Nephesh, and Meod
The original Deuteronomic text commands love with three faculties: levav (heart), nephesh (soul), and meod (might/strength). Understanding Jesus’ usage requires a rigorous excavation of these Hebraic concepts, which differ significantly from modern Western psychological categories.
The Heart (Levav): In the Hebrew worldview, the heart is not primarily the seat of emotion, but the "executive center" of the human person. It encompasses the intellect, the will, and the decision-making faculty.16 To love God with all one's levav is to direct every thought, plan, and decision toward Him. It is a command of intellectual and volitional allegiance, not merely sentimental affection.
The Soul (Nephesh): This term is often misunderstood as a disembodied spiritual entity. However, nephesh refers to the "throat" or "appetite," and by extension, the animating life force or the "self".17 It signifies the whole person as a living, breathing being with desires and drives. To love with the nephesh implies a willingness to expend one's very life—even to the point of martyrdom—for the sake of the covenant.18
The Might (Meod): The most difficult term to translate, meod, is actually an adverb meaning "very" or "muchness." It denotes abundance, force, and capacity.19 In the Targums and rabbinic literature, meod was often interpreted as "wealth" or "substance." Thus, to love God with all one's meod is to place all one's economic resources, political influence, and physical capacity at the disposal of the Divine.19
2.2 The Synoptic Expansion: The Addition of the Mind (Dianoia)
A critical textual phenomenon occurs in the transition from the Hebrew Masoretic Text to the Greek New Testament. The Synoptic Gospels (Matthew 22:37, Mark 12:30, Luke 10:27) introduce a fourth category: the "mind" (dianoia) or "understanding" (syneseos).15
This addition is not an accretion but a necessary translation strategy. Since the Hebrew levav included the intellect, but the Greek kardia was increasingly viewed as the seat of emotion, the Gospel writers (and the Septuagint translators before them) needed to make the intellectual requirement explicit.20
Mark’s Quadripartite Formula: Mark 12:30 lists four faculties: heart, soul, mind, and strength. This is likely a "double translation" of the Hebrew, utilizing both kardia and dianoia to fully capture the semantic range of levav.18
The Consecration of the Intellect: The explicit command to love God with the dianoia serves as a profound theological safeguard against anti-intellectualism. In a Hellenistic world that prized philosophy and reason, Jesus claims the intellect as a domain of worship. One cannot love God fully while withholding mental assent or failing to engage in the rigorous study of His truth. The scribe in Mark 12:33 acknowledges this, utilizing the term syneseos (understanding), confirming that true piety requires deep theological comprehension.22
2.3 The Rhetoric of Totality (Holos)
The repetition of the adjective holos ("all" or "whole") four times in the Markan account serves a vital rhetorical function.23 It emphasizes that the claim of the Great Commandment is exhaustive. There is no "secular" space in the believer's life; the economic (meod), the intellectual (dianoia), the biological (nephesh), and the volitional (kardia) are all subject to the sovereign claim of the One God. This holistic requirement serves as a devastating critique of the Pharisaic tendency toward compartmentalization—the cleaning of the outside of the cup while the inside remains full of greed.24
3. The Horizontal Axis: The Radicalization of Leviticus 19:18
Having established the vertical foundation, Jesus declares the second commandment to be "like unto" the first: "You shall love your neighbor as yourself".1 This citation from Leviticus 19:18 is elevated from a specific instruction within the Holiness Code to a universal constitution for human relations.
3.1 The Original Context: The Holiness Code and the Definition of Rea
Leviticus 19 is a collection of laws designed to ensure the ritual and moral holiness of Israel. The specific verse (19:18) forbids vengeance and grudge-bearing against "the children of your people".26
The Term Rea: The Hebrew word for neighbor, rea, implies a friend, companion, or fellow member of the covenant community.27 While Leviticus 19:34 explicitly extends love to the ger (resident alien), the common interpretation in Second Temple Judaism—particularly among the Qumran sectarians—was to limit rea to those within the bounds of the covenant.13
The Boundary Maintenance of the Law: The lawyer in Luke 10:29 exploits this ambiguity. By asking "And who is my neighbor?", he seeks a boundary definition that will allow him to limit the scope of his moral obligation. If "neighbor" means "righteous Jew," then he is exempt from loving the Samaritan, the Roman, or the "sinner".30
3.2 The Lukan Reversal: The Good Samaritan and the Universal Subject
Jesus responds to the lawyer's boundary-seeking question with the Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37). This narrative functions as a hermeneutical key for interpreting Leviticus 19:18.
From Object to Subject: The lawyer asked for an identification of the object of love ("Who is my neighbor?"). Jesus concludes the parable by asking who acted as a neighbor ("Which of these three proved to be a neighbor?"). This shifts the focus from the identity of the recipient to the activity of the agent.27 The "neighbor" is not a category of person defined by ethnicity or proximity; the neighbor is anyone who draws near to another in mercy.
The Scandal of the Samaritan: By choosing a Samaritan as the protagonist, Jesus deliberately dismantles the "Sons of Light/Sons of Darkness" dichotomy found in Qumran theology. The Samaritans were viewed as theological and ethnic hybrids, despised for their rival temple on Mt. Gerizim. For a Samaritan to fulfill the law of love while the Priest and Levite (representatives of the religious establishment) fail to do so, implies that agape transcends ritual purity laws.31 The Priest and Levite likely avoided the beaten man to avoid corpse impurity (Num 19:11), prioritizing ritual status over mercy. Jesus argues that love is the higher holiness.30
3.3 The Positive Ethic and the Golden Rule
The integration of the "Golden Rule" (Matthew 7:12) with the Great Commandment highlights the distinctiveness of Jesus’ ethic.
Negative vs. Positive Reciprocity: Hillel’s "Silver Rule" ("Do not do what is hateful") allows for passivity. One can fulfill it by isolation. Jesus’ positive formulation ("Do unto others") requires active engagement.10
Agape as Active Benevolence: The Greek term agape used in these passages is distinct from eros (desire) and philia (reciprocal friendship). Agape is volitional and unconditional. It is "prejudiced love" in favor of the needy, regardless of their merit.13 This aligns with the "New Commandment" of John 13:34, where the standard of love is escalated from "as yourself" to "as I have loved you"—a standard of self-sacrificial death.33
4. The Structural Unity: The "Hanging" Principle
A critical innovation in Jesus’ teaching is the coupling of these two commandments. While both existed separately in the Torah, Jesus fuses them into a single, bipartite constitution. The phrase in Matthew 22:39, "The second is like it" (homoia aute), asserts a profound structural equality.24
4.1 The Metaphor of Dependence (Krematai)
Matthew 22:40 contains a striking metaphor: "On these two commandments hang (krematai) all the Law and the Prophets".4
Linguistic Analysis of Kremannumi: The verb kremannumi means to suspend, used elsewhere in the NT for a millstone hanging around a neck (Matt 18:6) or criminals hanging on a cross (Luke 23:39).35 The imagery is architectural: the Law and Prophets are not a pile of independent rules, but a coherent structure suspended from a single nail or hinge. If the support (Love) is removed, the entire corpus of revelation collapses.5
Textual Variants: It is important to note the textual variance in Matthew 22:40. The majority Byzantine text reads krematai (singular), implying that the Law and Prophets hang as a singular unit. Other manuscripts (Codex W, Lectionaries) read kremantai (plural) or change the word order.34 However, the singular krematai reinforces the unity of scripture; the entire revelation depends on the dual command of love.
4.2 The Two Tables of the Decalogue
The structural relationship between the Great Commandments and the Ten Commandments (Decalogue) is traditional in Christian theology. The Decalogue is often divided into two "tables":
Table I (Commandments 1-4): Duties to God (No other gods, idols, name, Sabbath). These correspond to "Love the Lord your God."
Table II (Commandments 5-10): Duties to Neighbor (Parents, murder, adultery, theft, lying, coveting). These correspond to "Love your neighbor as yourself".38
Jesus’ summary confirms this structure but radicalizes it by asserting their inseparability. In 1 John 4:20, the apostle writes, "He who does not love his brother whom he has seen cannot love God whom he has not seen".41 The horizontal axis is the necessary proof and expression of the vertical axis. One cannot claim to keep the first table while violating the second.
4.3 "Like Unto It" (Homoia)
The Greek adjective homoia suggests likeness or equivalence. By stating the second command is like the first, Jesus elevates the ethical treatment of humans to a level of importance comparable to the worship of God.34 This is a bold theological move that prevents the bifurcation of religion and ethics. In the Kingdom of God, sociology is theology. How one treats the imago Dei (the neighbor) is the direct reflection of one's attitude toward the Deus (God).43
5. The Theology of Fulfillment (Plerosis)
The relationship between the Great Commandments and the Mosaic Law is further illuminated by the concept of "fulfillment" (pleroo), introduced in Matthew 5:17 and developed in Pauline theology (Romans 13:8-10, Galatians 5:14).
5.1 Pleroo vs. Kataluo: Completion, Not Abolition
Jesus declares, "Do not think that I have come to abolish (kataluo) the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill (pleroo) them".44
Teleological Fulfillment: The verb pleroo means to fill up, to complete, or to bring to intended expression. The Law functions as a prophetic shadow or a tutor pointing toward a reality. Love is that reality. Jesus fulfills the Law by revealing its ultimate goal (telos). For example, the prohibition against adultery is fulfilled not merely by avoiding the physical act, but by a love that protects covenantal trust and desires the purity of the other.46
Augustine on the Ceremonial Law: St. Augustine addresses how love fulfills even the ceremonial and dietary laws. He argues that these laws were "figurative prophecies." The dietary restrictions, which separated clean from unclean, prefigured the holiness of the church. Once the reality of Love (Christ) has come, the figures cease, but the truth they pointed to—holiness and separation from sin—is "fulfilled" in the believer’s life of love.48
5.2 Pauline Synthesis: Love as the Pleroma of the Law
The Apostle Paul explicitly develops this theme in Romans 13:8-10 and Galatians 5:14. "For the whole law is fulfilled in one word: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself'".46
The Infinite Debt: Paul describes love as a "continuing debt" (opheilo). Unlike civil debts which can be discharged, the obligation to love is infinite because it reflects the infinite love of God.51
The Mechanism of Summation: Paul states that the commandments are "summed up" (anakephalaioutai) in the love command.53 This suggests that the specific prohibitions of the Decalogue are merely case studies of the love principle. Love is the root; the commandments are the branches. If the root is healthy, the branches naturally grow.
The End of the Sacrificial System: Mark 12:33 records the scribe’s insight that love is "more than all whole burnt offerings and sacrifices".7 Jesus validates this ("You are not far from the Kingdom"). This signals the transition from a cultic system of animal sacrifice to a moral system of self-sacrifice. The prophets (Hosea 6:6, Micah 6:8) had long argued that God desires mercy, not sacrifice. Jesus declares that agape is the realization of this prophetic hope.55
5.3 The Law of Christ and the Spirit
Paul argues that the Law of Moses could command righteousness but could not produce it, due to the weakness of the flesh (Rom 8:3). However, the "Law of the Spirit of life" enables the believer to fulfill the "righteous requirement of the law" through love.50 The fruit of the Spirit is love (Gal 5:22). Therefore, the believer is not "under the law" as a condemning code, but fulfills the law through the internal dynamic of the Spirit.
6. Patristic and Rabbinic Reception: A Comparative Hermeneutic
The reception of these commands in Jewish and Christian tradition reveals the depth of their impact.
6.1 Rabbi Akiva and the Klal Gadol
Rabbi Akiva (c. 50–135 CE), a contemporary of the early church, also identified Leviticus 19:18 as the Klal Gadol (Great Principle) of the Torah.3
Akiva vs. Ben Azzai: The Talmud records a debate where Ben Azzai counters Akiva, suggesting that Genesis 5:1 ("This is the book of the generations of Adam... in the likeness of God made He him") is a greater principle.43 Ben Azzai’s argument is that "neighbor" might imply subjectivity or preference, whereas the "likeness of God" confers objective dignity on every human, regardless of their relationship to us.
Synthesis: Christian theology arguably synthesizes these views: the neighbor is loved precisely because they bear the image of the God we are commanded to love. The "Greatest Commandment" (Love God) provides the Ben Azzai-like objective grounding for the Akiva-like ethical imperative.43
6.2 Augustine: Ordo Amoris and the Teleology of Desire
Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) developed a sophisticated theology of love based on these commands, known as ordo amoris (the order of love).
Uti vs. Frui: Augustine distinguished between things to be enjoyed (frui) and things to be used (uti). God alone is to be enjoyed for His own sake. The neighbor is to be loved and "used" (in the sense of served/employed) for the sake of God.48
Disordered Love: Sin, for Augustine, is disordered love—enjoying what should be used (loving money or power for its own sake) or using what should be enjoyed (using God to get money). The Great Commandments restore the ordo amoris: God is the supreme object of love, and the neighbor is loved "in God." This prevents idolatry (loving the neighbor as God) and exploitation (using the neighbor for selfish ends).59
7. Contemporary Theological and Ethical Implications
The "Great Commandments" continue to exert profound influence on modern ethics and theology.
7.1 The Danger of the "Silver Rule"
In modern secular ethics, the "Silver Rule" (do no harm) often prevails as the standard of tolerance. However, the analysis of Jesus’ "Golden Rule" and the Good Samaritan parable reveals that non-maleficence is insufficient.10 The priest and Levite in the parable followed the Silver Rule—they did not attack the man; they simply did nothing. Jesus condemns this passivity. A biblical ethic requires active intervention in the face of suffering, challenging modern notions of privacy and limited liability.10
7.2 Anti-Semitism and the Definition of Neighbor
The historical tragedy of anti-Semitism often stemmed from a Christian failure to apply the definition of "neighbor" to the Jewish people. The lawyer's question ("Who is my neighbor?") remains the perennial temptation of the church—to define a boundary that excludes the "other." The "fulfillment" of the law is not the replacement of the Jewish people, but the expansion of the covenantal ethic to include the nations. To love the Jewish neighbor is inherent in the command to love the God of Israel.3
7.3 The Consecration of the Mind
In an age of information overload and "post-truth" politics, the command to love God with the dianoia (mind) is urgent. It calls for intellectual virtue, the discipline of truth-seeking, and the refusal to succumb to comfortable lies. Discipleship involves the redemption of the intellect, ensuring that one’s worldview is aligned with the reality of God.23
8. Conclusion: The Constitution of the Kingdom
The exhaustive analysis of the research data leads to the conclusion that Jesus’ bipartite commandment is not a reductionistic slogan but the hermeneutical key to the entire biblical revelation. It does not lower the bar of the Law but raises it to the level of the heart’s deepest motivations.
Exhaustive Scope: By commanding the engagement of heart, soul, mind, and strength, Jesus claims the totality of human existence for God.
Structural Necessity: The "hanging" metaphor (krematai) establishes Love as the structural support of the Law. Any theology that claims to be biblical but lacks love is structurally unsound; it has been severed from its support.5
Teleological Fulfillment: Love is the telos of the Torah. The commandments find their "Yes" in the life of the one who loves. This prepares the way for the New Covenant, where the law is written on the heart (Jer 31:33), enabling the believer to fulfill the essence of the Law through the Spirit.50
In the final analysis, the "fulfillment" of the Law and Prophets is not the erasure of the text, but its incarnation in the life of the believer. The command to love is the summary of the divine will, the mechanism of its fulfillment, and the ultimate criterion of the Final Judgment. It remains the "royal law" (James 2:8), the constitution of the Kingdom, and the singular mark of the disciple.
Appendix: Comparative Analysis of Commandment Formulas
Feature
The Shema (Deut 6:5)
Synoptic Gospels (Mark 12/Luke 10)
Theological Significance
Faculty 1
Levav (Heart)
Kardia (Heart)
Center of will/decision.
Faculty 2
Nephesh (Soul)
Psyche (Soul)
Life force/animating self.
Faculty 3
N/A (Implicit in Levav)
Dianoia (Mind)
Intellectual consecration; counters anti-intellectualism.
Faculty 4
Meod (Might/Muchness)
Ischys (Strength)
Resources, capacity, "muchness."
Focus
Vertical (Monotheism)
Vertical & Horizontal (Synthesis)
Integration of theology and ethics.
Measure
Totality ("All")
Totality ("All") & Reciprocity ("As yourself")
The standard is total surrender (God) and empathy (Neighbor).
Metaphor
Covenant Stipulation
Hinge/Nail (Krematai)
Structural dependence of all revelation on these two.
This comparison underscores the intentional expansion Jesus provides, ensuring that the comprehensive claim of the God of Israel is intelligible and binding across cultures and epochs.
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