The Ishmaelite Covenant and the Prophet of Arabia: An Exhaustive Exegetical and Historical Analysis of Isaiah’s Prophecies in Relation to Muhammad
1. Introduction: The Hermeneutics of Prophecy and the Abrahamic Schism
The theological relationship between the three great monotheistic faiths—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—is defined not only by their shared reverence for the patriarch Abraham but also by their divergent interpretations of the prophetic covenant. At the heart of this divergence lies the identity of the promised deliverer, the "Servant of the Lord," whose advent was foretold by the Hebrew prophets. While Jewish tradition awaits a Messiah to restore the Davidic kingdom and Christian theology identifies Jesus of Nazareth as the fulfillment of these promises, Islamic theology posits a third paradigm: that the ultimate fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant, specifically the branch of Ishmael, is realized in the person of Prophet Muhammad.
This report provides an exhaustive, expert-level examination of the assertion that Prophet Muhammad is the subject of specific, identifiable prophecies within the Book of Isaiah. This inquiry is not merely a theological exercise but a rigorous investigation into historical geography, comparative linguistics, and textual exegesis. The analysis focuses primarily on three critical pericopes: the "Servant Song" of Isaiah 42, the "Burden of Arabia" in Isaiah 21, and the "Unlettered Prophet" of Isaiah 29. By synthesizing ancient Assyrian records, Hebrew etymology, pre-Islamic Arabian poetry, and the early biographical literature (Seerah) of Muhammad, this report aims to reconstruct the evidentiary basis upon which Islamic scholars claim that the "New Song" singing from the villages of Kedar heralds the rise of Islam.
The methodology employed herein is interdisciplinary. It scrutinizes the Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT), the Greek Septuagint (LXX), and the Arabic Quranic and Hadith traditions to identify philological bridges. It further overlays the geopolitical map of 7th-century Arabia onto the topographical descriptions found in Isaiah, testing the hypothesis that the "Wilderness," "Sela," and "Tema" are not merely metaphorical constructs but precise coordinates for the migration (Hijra) and military campaigns of the Prophet of Islam.
2. The Servant of Isaiah 42: Identity, Election, and Universal Law
The forty-second chapter of Isaiah contains the first of the so-called "Servant Songs," a text that has generated centuries of debate regarding the identity of the Ebed Yahweh (Servant of the Lord). The passage begins with a divine summons: "Behold my servant, whom I uphold; mine elect, in whom my soul delighteth; I have put my spirit upon him: he shall bring forth justice to the Gentiles" (Isaiah 42:1).
2.1 The Philological Argument: Ahmed and Etmokh
The identification of the Servant begins with the text itself. In the Masoretic Hebrew text, the phrase "whom I uphold" is rendered as etmokh-bo. Islamic apologetics, drawing upon a tradition of finding the Prophet's name within the text, argue that this Hebrew verbal form masks a proper noun. The root letters Aleph-Tav-Mem-Khaf in etmokh bear a visual and phonetic resemblance to Ahmed, the celestial name of Muhammad mentioned in the Quran (Surah As-Saf 61:6).1
While standard Hebrew lexicons define tamakh as "to grasp" or "to support," the argument posits that the distinct usage here serves as a double entendre or a remnant of a pre-Masoretic reading. Furthermore, the description of the servant as the "Elect" or "Chosen One" corresponds directly to the Arabic title Al-Mustafa, one of the most common honorifics of Muhammad.2 This linguistic mirroring extends to the phrase "in whom my soul delighteth." The Hebrew root for "delight" or "desire" is often linked to the root R-Tz-H, but the thematic connection to "praise" and "desire" evokes the root H-M-D (from which Muhammad and Ahmed are derived).
Historically, the concept of the "Servant" (Abd) is central to Islamic Christology and Prophetology. Unlike Christian theology, which elevates Jesus to Sonship, Islam maintains the title Abd-Allah (Servant of God) as the highest honor a human can attain. The Shahada (testimony of faith) explicitly pairs "His Servant" with "His Messenger" (Abduhu wa Rasuluhu). Thus, when Isaiah declares "Behold my Servant," Islamic exegesis hears a confirmation of this specific ontological status, distinct from the "Son" of Christian dogma.3
2.2 Mishpat to the Goyim: The Establishment of Universal Law
The primary mission of the Servant in Isaiah 42:1 and 42:4 is to bring forth mishpat (justice/judgment) to the goyim (nations/Gentiles). The text emphasizes perseverance: "He shall not fail nor be discouraged, till he have set judgment in the earth: and the isles shall wait for his law" (Isaiah 42:4).
2.2.1 The Nature of the Law (Torah)
The Hebrew word Torah in verse 4 is traditionally translated as "law" or "instruction." From a comparative perspective, this presents a significant differentiator between Jesus and Muhammad.
The Christian View: In Christian theology, Jesus fulfills the Mosaic Law but does not establish a new geopolitical legal code. His kingdom is explicitly "not of this world" (John 18:36), and he provides moral and spiritual guidance rather than a comprehensive system of civil and criminal jurisprudence.3
The Islamic View: Muhammad, conversely, brought the Shariah—a complete, divinely ordained legal system that governs statecraft, commerce, warfare, hygiene, and family life. He established a literal "justice in the earth" by unifying the warring tribes of Arabia under a single legal framework. Islamic scholars argue that the "law" mentioned in Isaiah 42 is the Quran and the Sunnah, which replaced the previous dispensations.4
2.2.2 The "Isles" and Global Expansion
The prophecy states that the "isles" (or coastlands) shall wait for his law. This term (iyim) typically refers to distant lands across the sea. The spread of Islam from the deserts of Arabia to the "isles" of the Malay Archipelago (Indonesia, Malaysia) and the Philippines—home to the world's largest Muslim populations—is cited as a literal fulfillment of this geographic marker.3 The "waiting" implies a spiritual vacuum or readiness among the Gentiles for a new monotheistic code, which Islam filled rapidly in the century following the Prophet’s death.
2.3 The Dual Nature: The "Bruised Reed" and the "Man of War"
One of the most complex aspects of Isaiah 42 is the apparent contradiction between the gentle, non-violent servant of verses 2-3 and the roaring warrior of verse 13. Islamic analysis resolves this tension by mapping these attributes onto the chronology of Muhammad’s life, which is divided into two distinct phases: the Meccan period and the Medinan period.
2.3.1 The Meccan Phase: The Bruised Reed
Verses 2-3 describe a figure of immense restraint: "He shall not cry, nor lift up, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street. A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking flax shall he not quench."
Historical Correlation: For the first thirteen years of his mission (610–622 CE) in Mecca, Muhammad was a pacifist. He and his followers were a marginalized minority, subjected to ridicule, physical torture, and social boycott by the Quraysh elite. Despite this, he did not "cry out" for insurrection. He forbade his followers from retaliating with violence. He was known as Al-Amin (The Trustworthy) and walked the streets of Mecca with a quiet demeanor, refusing to "break" the fragile social cohesion of his tribe even when persecuted.2
The "Smoking Flax": This metaphor suggests a flickering flame that is weak but not extinguished. It represents the state of monotheism in Arabia—a dying ember amidst paganism—which Muhammad nurtured gently without extinguishing the potential for the Arabs' salvation.
2.3.2 The Medinan Phase: The Man of War
Verse 13 introduces a radical shift in tone: "The LORD shall go forth as a mighty man, he shall stir up jealousy like a man of war: he shall cry, yea, roar; he shall prevail against his enemies."
Historical Correlation: Following the Hijra (migration) to Medina in 622 CE, the divine command shifted from passive endurance to active defense and establishment of justice. Muhammad became a statesman and a general. The "roar" of the warrior corresponds to the Takbir ("Allahu Akbar") shouted on the battlefields of Badr, Uhud, and Khandaq.4
Prevailing Against Enemies: The text specifies that the servant shall prevail against his enemies. Islamic apologists contrast this with the Christian narrative of the Crucifixion, arguing that Jesus, in his earthly ministry, appeared to be defeated by his enemies (the Romans and Jewish authorities) rather than prevailing over them in the martial sense described by Isaiah.3 Muhammad, however, achieved total victory during his lifetime, entering Mecca as a conqueror and smashing the idols, thereby fulfilling the imagery of the "Man of War."
2.4 The Destruction of Idolatry
Verse 17 pronounces the outcome of the Servant’s mission: "They shall be turned back, they shall be greatly ashamed, that trust in graven images, that say to the molten images, Ye are our gods."
This verse describes the theological revolution of Islam. Pre-Islamic Arabia was deeply polytheistic, with the Kaaba in Mecca housing 360 idols. The Servant’s mission results in the idolaters being "turned back" and "ashamed." This was literally fulfilled at the Conquest of Mecca in 630 CE (8 AH). Upon entering the Kaaba, Prophet Muhammad toppled the idols one by one, reciting the verse from the Quran: "Truth has come and falsehood has vanished" (Surah Al-Isra 17:81). The eradication of idolatry in the Arabian Peninsula was total and permanent, aligning with the definitive language of Isaiah.5 Unlike the partial reforms of previous eras, this servant enacted a complete cleansing of "molten images" from the land of Kedar.
3. The Geography of Prophecy: Kedar, Sela, and the Wilderness
While theological descriptions can be debated, geographical markers offer a more concrete basis for identification. Islamic scholars argue that Isaiah 42:11 provides a precise GPS for the location of the Servant’s emergence: "Let the wilderness and the cities thereof lift up their voice, the villages that Kedar doth inhabit: let the inhabitants of the rock sing, let them shout from the top of the mountains."
3.1 The Genealogical Marker: Kedar (Qedar)
The identity of "Kedar" is critical to the Islamic interpretation.
Biblical Genealogy: According to Genesis 25:13, Kedar was the second son of Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The "villages of Kedar" therefore refer to the lands inhabited by the Ishmaelite tribes.3
Historical Geography: Assyrian inscriptions from the reigns of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC) and Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC) frequently mention the "Qidri" or "Qedarites" as a powerful Arab tribal confederation dominating the Syrian-Arabian desert and the northern Hejaz.8 They were known for their archers, flocks, and trade caravans.
Link to Muhammad: Prophet Muhammad traces his lineage directly to Ishmael through the tribe of Quraysh, which was a branch of the Kedarite confederation that settled in Mecca. By specifying "Kedar," Isaiah is explicitly shifting the prophetic focus from the House of Jacob (Israel) to the House of Ishmael. If the prophecy were regarding Jesus, the reference to Kedar would be geographically and genealogically incongruous, as Jesus’ ministry was confined to Judea and Galilee.3 The "rejoicing" of Kedar signifies the reception of a prophet from among their own "brethren" (Deuteronomy 18:18).
3.2 The Topographical Marker: Sela vs. Petra
The verse calls for the inhabitants of Sela to sing. The Hebrew word Sela simply means "Rock."
The Traditional View: Biblical geographers often identify Sela with the Edomite capital of Petra in modern-day Jordan (2 Kings 14:7).9 This association is based on the rocky terrain of Petra. However, there is no historical record of a universal "new song" or a global legal code emerging from Edom/Petra that changed the course of religious history.
The Islamic Identification: Islamic research identifies Sela as Jabal Sela (Mount Sela), a prominent mountain located in the city of Medina (formerly Yathrib).10
Geographical Evidence: 10th-century geographer Al-Hamdani and other early Arab historians explicitly list Sela as one of the mountains of Medina.11
Archaeological Evidence: Inscriptions found on Mount Sela in Medina date back to the early Islamic period and include the names of Prophet Muhammad and his closest companions, confirming the site's significance and name retention over millennia.11
Theological Fit: Medina was the city that welcomed the Prophet after his migration. It was from Medina—the city of Sela—that the Adhan (call to prayer) was first established and shouted "from the top of the mountains" (or minarets). The "inhabitants of Sela" singing for joy corresponds to the Ansar (Helpers) of Medina welcoming Muhammad with songs of praise (Tala'a al-Badru 'Alayna) upon his arrival.12
3.3 The "Wilderness" (Midbar)
The text opens with "Let the wilderness... lift up their voice." The Hebrew Midbar denotes a desert or uncultivated pasture land. This term stands in contrast to the agricultural societies of the Levant or Mesopotamia. It aptly describes the Hejaz region of western Arabia—a barren land that had never produced a major prophet or scripture prior to the 7th century. The sudden "lifting up of the voice" from this silent wilderness represents the eruption of monotheistic revelation in a land historically deemed spiritually "barren" (compare Isaiah 54:1 "Sing, O barren").1
4. The "New Song" (Shir Chadash): Liturgy and the Shift of Covenant
Isaiah 42:10 commands: "Sing unto the LORD a new song, and his praise from the end of the earth, ye that go down to the sea, and all that is therein; the isles, and the inhabitants thereof." The concept of a Shir Chadash (New Song) is pivotal in understanding the transition between religious dispensations.
4.1 A New Language of Revelation
Islamic theology interprets the "New Song" not merely as a fresh hymn but as a totally new mode of worship in a new language.
The Shift from Hebrew: For centuries, the "song" of God—the Psalms, the Torah, the Prophets—was sung in Hebrew. A "new" song implies a break from this tradition. The Quran, revealed in Arabic (a sister Semitic language), represents this new song. The Arabic language shares the same triliteral root system as Hebrew, making it a "new" yet related vessel for Abrahamic monotheism.3
The Adhan (Call to Prayer): The phrase "lift up their voice" (v. 11) is seen as a direct allusion to the Adhan, the Islamic call to prayer. Five times a day, from minarets across the globe ("from the end of the earth"), the muezzin cries out the greatness of God. This vocal, public proclamation is distinct from the shofar of Judaism or the bells of Christianity. It is a "shout from the tops of the mountains" that literally saturates the air with the praise of the "One God" (Tawhid).1
4.2 Global Universality
The text specifies that this praise will come from "the end of the earth" and "the isles." This universality is the hallmark of Islam, which explicitly positions itself as a message for all of humanity (Al-Nas), breaking the ethnic exclusivity of the earlier Israelite covenant. The reference to the "isles" is particularly poignant for Muslim scholars who point to the vast archipelagic Muslim populations in Indonesia and Southeast Asia as the fulfillment of the "isles waiting for his law".3
5. The Linguistic Bridge: Meshullam and the Muslim Identity
A fascinating etymological argument arises from Isaiah 42:19: "Who is blind, but my servant? or deaf, as my messenger that I sent? who is blind as he that is perfect [Meshullam], and blind as the LORD's servant?"
5.1 The Root S-L-M
The Hebrew word translated as "perfect" or "dedicated one" is Meshullam. This is the Pual participle of the root Sh-L-M (Shin-Lamed-Mem). This root is the semantic equivalent of the Arabic root S-L-M (Sin-Lam-Mim), from which the words Islam (Submission) and Muslim (One who submits) are derived.13
Translation Variance: The Septuagint translates Meshullam using terms related to perfection or completion, while the Targum links it to being "peaceable." However, cognate analysis suggests "The Submitted One" or "The One at Peace/Surrendered" is a literal rendering.
Islamic Argument: Muslims argue that Isaiah is using the exact title of the followers of Muhammad: Muslim (Meshullam). The vocalization differences are attributed to the dialectical shift between Hebrew and Arabic.
5.2 The Paradox of Blindness and Deafness
Why would the prophet be called blind and deaf?
Christian/Jewish View: This is often read as a rebuke of Israel’s spiritual blindness.10
Islamic View: In the context of the Servant who is "perfect" (Meshullam), blindness and deafness are interpreted as positive attributes of single-minded devotion. The Servant is "blind" to worldly temptations and "deaf" to all voices except the voice of God. This aligns with the Quranic description of the Prophet as one who "does not speak from his own desire" (Surah An-Najm 53:3) but is entirely surrendered to the Divine Will.15
6. The Unlettered Prophet: Isaiah 29 and the Cave of Hira
Isaiah 29:12 contains a verse that Islamic scholars regard as a verbatim prediction of the specific circumstances of Muhammad's first revelation: "And the book is delivered to him that is not learned, saying, Read this, I pray thee: and he saith, I am not learned."
6.1 The Historical Narrative: Hira
The biography of Muhammad records that in 610 CE, at the age of 40, he was meditating in the Cave of Hira when the Archangel Gabriel (Jibril) appeared to him.
The Command: Gabriel commanded him, "Iqra!" (Read/Recite!).
The Response: Muhammad, who was illiterate, replied, "Ma ana bi qari" (I am not a reader / I do not know how to read).
The Repetition: This exchange occurred three times before Gabriel squeezed him and the first verses of the Quran (Surah Al-Alaq 96:1-5) flowed from his lips.16
6.2 Textual Parallelism
The correspondence between the Isaiah text and the Hadith is structurally identical:
Presentation of the Book: "The book is delivered to him..." (Isaiah) matches Gabriel presenting the revelation.
The Recipient's State: "...to him that is not learned" (Isaiah). The Hebrew phrase is lo yada sefer (does not know the book/writing). This matches Muhammad's status as Ummi (unlettered).
The Command: "Read this" (Kera na zeh). Matches "Iqra."
The Denial: "I am not learned" (lo yadati sefer - I do not know book). Matches "Ma ana bi qari."
6.3 The "Sealed Book" vs. The Unlettered
Verse 11 mentions a "vision of all" becoming like a "sealed book" delivered to one who is learned, who says "I cannot; for it is sealed." Islamic exegesis interprets the "learned" as the Jewish and Christian priests of the time. They possessed the scripture (the "vision of all"), but it was "sealed" to them—they could not recognize the new prophet due to dogmatic closures or the "deep sleep" (v. 10) poured out upon them. The revelation then passes to the "unlettered" one (v. 12), through whom the book is finally "read" (recited as the Quran).18
6.4 The Septuagint Variant: Cheiras vs. Hira
A niche but persistent argument in Islamic apologetics involves the Greek Septuagint text of Isaiah 29:12. The text reads kai dothesetai to biblion touto eis cheiras anthropou ("and this book shall be given into the hands of a man..."). Some argue that the Greek word cheiras (hands) may be a translation or corruption of the original placename Hira (the cave where the revelation occurred). If the original prophecy mentioned the book being given "in Hira," the phonetic similarity between the Aramaic/Hebrew for "cave/hole" (chur/hor) and the Greek cheiras could explain the translation shift.20 While speculative, this argument underscores the depth of the search for the specific locus of the prophecy.
7. The Burden of Arabia: Isaiah 21 and the Strategic Migration
Isaiah 21:13-17, titled "The Burden upon Arabia" (Massa Arav), provides perhaps the most detailed historical roadmap aligning with the events of the Prophet's life. While critical scholars typically assign this oracle to the Assyrian campaigns of Sargon II (c. 715 BC) or Sennacherib 8, Islamic historians argue that the specific details—the flight, the location, and the timeline—find their ultimate fulfillment in the Hijra (Migration) and the Battle of Badr.
7.1 The Flight from the Sword
Verses 14-15 describe a scene of desperate escape: "The inhabitants of the land of Tema brought water to him that was thirsty... For they fled from the swords, from the drawn sword, and from the bent bow, and from the grievousness of war."
The Event: In 622 CE, the Prophet Muhammad and his closest companion Abu Bakr fled Mecca in the dead of night to escape an assassination plot hatched by the Quraysh council (Dar al-Nadwa). The Quraysh had selected young men with "drawn swords" from every tribe to kill him.4
The Route: They hid in the Cave of Thawr for three days before heading north towards Medina (Yathrib). This route through the desert corresponds to the "thickets" (or forests/scrubland) of Arabia mentioned in verse 13.
Tema and Dedan: The prophecy references the "traveling companies of Dedanim" and the "land of Tema." Tema (Tayma) is a major oasis located north of Medina. While the Prophet settled in Medina, the reference to Tema and Dedan situates the prophecy geographically in the northern Hejaz—the precise theater of early Islamic history. The "inhabitants" bringing bread and water parallels the Ansar (Helpers) of Medina who took in the Muhajirun (refugees) and shared their wealth and sustenance with them.12
7.2 The "Year of a Hireling" and the Fall of Kedar
Verse 16 provides a precise chronological marker: "Within a year, according to the years of an hireling, and all the glory of Kedar shall fail."
The Calculation: A "year of a hireling" implies an exact, precise year (as a contract worker counts days).
The Fulfillment: The Hijra occurred in 622 CE. Exactly one year later (in the second year of the Hijra, 624 CE), the Muslims faced the Quraysh (the "Glory of Kedar") at the Battle of Badr.
The Destruction of Glory: At Badr, the "mighty men" of Kedar—the aristocracy of Mecca, including Abu Jahl, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, and Utbah ibn Rabiah—were killed. The "residue of the number of archers" was literally diminished. This battle marked the turning point where the "glory" of the pagan Arabs was broken forever, paving the way for the rise of Islam.4
Assyrian Counter-Argument: While Sargon II did campaign against Arabian tribes (c. 715 BC), Islamic scholars argue that those skirmishes were temporary raids that did not permanently end the "glory of Kedar" or change the course of history. The defeat at Badr, however, was an existential collapse of the old Arabian order, fitting the prophetic weight of the "Burden."
8. Intertextual Convergence: Deuteronomy and Canticles
To bolster the Isaiah analysis, Islamic scholars frequently integrate supporting texts from the Torah and the Ketuvim (Writings).
8.1 The Three Mountains: Deuteronomy 33:2
"The LORD came from Sinai, and rose up from Seir unto them; he shined forth from Mount Paran, and he came with ten thousands of saints: from his right hand went a fiery law for them."
This verse is interpreted as a chronological map of the three great monotheistic revelations:
Sinai: The revelation of the Torah to Moses.
Seir: A mountain range in Edom/Palestine, representing the revelation of the Gospel to Jesus.
Mount Paran: The final revelation. Islamic geography identifies Paran (Faran) with the mountains of Mecca. Genesis 21:21 states that Ishmael "dwelt in the wilderness of Paran." Since Ishmael is the father of the Arabs and dwelt in Mecca (building the Kaaba with Abraham), Paran is inextricably linked to Mecca.5
The 10,000 Saints: The "shining forth" from Paran is linked to the Conquest of Mecca (630 CE), where Muhammad marched with an army of exactly 10,000 companions (saints/believers).
The Fiery Law: As noted in the discussion of Isaiah 42, the "fiery law" is the Shariah, contrasting with the grace-centric message associated with Seir/Jesus.22
8.2 The "Altogether Lovely": Song of Solomon 5:16
"His mouth is most sweet: yea, he is altogether lovely [Mahamaddim]. This is my beloved, and this is my friend, O daughters of Jerusalem."
The Hebrew word Mahamaddim is the plural of Mahamad (Desire/Praiseworthy). Muslims argue that this is a proper noun—the name of the Prophet (Muhammad)—retained in the Hebrew text. The plural ending -im is interpreted as a plural of respect (majestic plural), similar to Elohim. Thus, the verse is read as: "He is Muhammad. This is my beloved...".23
9. Conclusion: The Cumulative Case for Fulfillment
The assertion that Prophet Muhammad is the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies does not rest on a single ambiguous verse but on a cumulative convergence of geographical, historical, linguistic, and characterological data points.
Geographically: The text shifts the prophetic center from Zion to the Wilderness, specifically the Villages of Kedar (North Arabia) and the Mountain of Sela (Medina), engaging the Isles in a global worship.
Historically: The sequence of the Flight from the Sword (Hijra), the reception by Tema/Dedan, and the destruction of Kedar’s Glory within exactly one year (Badr) aligns with the biography of Muhammad with a precision that arguably surpasses Assyrian candidates.
Characterologically: The duality of the Bruised Reed (Meccan patience) and the Man of War (Medinan victory) perfectly captures the two distinct phases of the Prophet's mission, resolving the internal tension of Isaiah 42.
Linguistically: The presence of the root S-L-M (Meshullam), the correlation of Unlettered (Lo yada sefer) with Ummi, and the phonetic echo of Ahmed in Etmokh suggest a philological tapestry woven to identify the Arabian prophet.
For the Muslim theologian, Isaiah 42, 21, and 29 are not merely ancient poetry but the pre-eternal validation of the Final Covenant. They describe a prophet who is not a Jewish Messiah restoring a local kingdom, but a Universal Servant singing a New Song in a new tongue, establishing a Fiery Law that would shatter the idols of Kedar and unite the tribes of the wilderness under the banner of the One God.
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