A Scholarly Analysis of Danielic Prophecy in Christian Christology

23 Nov

I. Introduction: The Prophetic Role of Daniel in Christian Thought

A. The Apocalyptic Genre and its Christological Function

The Book of Daniel, ostensibly set in the 6th century BC Babylonian exile 1, represents a seminal work of biblical apocalyptic literature.2 This genre is distinct from classical prophecy. Rather than delivering direct oracles, it communicates its message through a series of elaborate, symbolic visions.3 These visions are not concerned merely with the immediate political future of Israel but with the cosmic, eschatological culmination of all human history.2

The book's core theological message is the ultimate sovereignty of God. It presents a divine perspective on history, revealing that God is in complete control, even when "ruthless and terrible" earthly kings appear to reign.4 God gives and takes away kingdoms, and He determines the course of history before it happens.5 This apocalyptic framework, which contrasts the fleeting, violent empires of man with the establishment of an "everlasting kingdom" 1, provided an ideal textual and theological foundation for the New Testament authors as they sought to explain the cosmic and eschatological significance of Jesus Christ.

B. The Hermeneutical Fork: Canonical Position and Interpretive Strategy

The interpretive lens through which the Book of Daniel is read is profoundly shaped by its canonical position, which differs starkly between the Hebrew and Christian Bibles. In the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh), Daniel is not included among the Nevi'im (Prophets) but is placed within the Ketuvim (Writings), alongside works like Psalms, Proverbs, and Chronicles.2 This placement suggests a primary function as inspired wisdom, narrative, and historical reflection.

Conversely, Christian biblical canons group Daniel with the "Major Prophets," alongside Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel.2 This is not a simple bibliographic curiosity; it represents a fundamental hermeneutical divergence. The Christian canonical placement structurally necessitates a reading of Daniel as a work of predictive, eschatological prophecy on par with Isaiah. From the very table of contents, the Christian reader is primed to find explicit, long-range predictions. This canonical shift is a primary symptom of the different interpretive paths taken by Jewish and Christian traditions, with the Christian path being inherently Christological and predictive.

C. Framework of the Report: Three Lenses on Daniel

To provide an exhaustive and nuanced analysis, this report will examine each key passage through three distinct and often competing interpretive schools, all of which are well-represented in theological and academic scholarship:

The Christological (Messianic Fulfillment): This is the traditional and evangelical Christian interpretation. It views the passages as supernaturally inspired, long-range predictions written by the 6th-century BC prophet Daniel, which find their precise and literal fulfillment in the person, work, and timeline of Jesus Christ.1
The Historical-Critical (Academic): This is the broad consensus of secular and liberal biblical scholarship.9 This view posits a 2nd-century BC date for the book's final composition.2 The "prophecies" are therefore understood as vaticinium ex eventu ("prophecy after the fact"), a coded history of the Hellenistic period, specifically the conflict between the Seleucid Empire and the Jews during the Maccabean Revolt (c. 167–164 BC).11
The Rabbinic (Jewish Exegetical): This encompasses traditional and modern Jewish interpretations. It rejects the Christological claims and instead identifies the figures and events in Daniel with other historical personages, such as Cyrus the Great 13, the collective people of Israel 14, or the events surrounding the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 AD.13

II. The Stone Not Cut by Hands: Daniel 2 and the Eternal Kingdom

A. Exegetical Analysis of Daniel 2:31-45

The first major prophecy utilized in Christological prediction is the dream of King Nebuchadnezzar in Daniel 2.16 The king dreams of a "great image" 17 with a multi-metallic composition: a head of gold, chest and arms of silver, middle and thighs of bronze, legs of iron, and feet of mixed iron and clay.16

In Daniel's divinely-given interpretation, these segments represent a succession of four great earthly kingdoms.1 The dream's climax occurs when a "stone was cut out by no human hand".16 This stone strikes the statue on its iron-and-clay feet, completely shattering the entire image, which becomes "like chaff" and is blown away.16 The stone, in contrast, "became a great mountain and filled the whole earth".16

B. Christological Interpretation: The Indestructible Kingdom

In Christian exegesis, this vision is a foundational prophecy of the Kingdom of God.

The Stone as Christ: The "stone" is unequivocally identified as Jesus Christ and his kingdom.1 The crucial phrase "not by human hands" 16 is interpreted as signifying its divine origin, distinct from the man-made kingdoms of the statue. Many theologians connect this detail specifically to the virgin birth of Christ, an event without human agency.16
The Four Kingdoms (Christian View): This interpretation requires a specific identification of the four empires to align with the New Testament timeline: (1) Babylon (gold), (2) Medo-Persia (silver), (3) Greece (bronze), and (4) Rome (iron).1
Theological Significance: This sequence is theologically vital. It places the "striking" of the stone—the advent of Christ—during the era of the fourth kingdom, Rome.27 This perfectly matches the historical setting of the Gospels. The kingdom established by this stone "shall never be destroyed" and "shall stand forever" 20, identifying it with the eternal Kingdom of God, which Christ inaugurated.16

C. New Testament Application: The Cornerstone Parables

The New Testament authors, and Jesus himself, exegetically claim this prophecy. In the parable of the wicked tenants (Matthew 21:42-44; Luke 20:18), Jesus concludes with a direct and compound allusion: "The stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone... Everyone who falls on that stone will be broken to pieces, and when it falls on anyone, it will crush him".16

This formulation is a masterful piece of exegesis, deliberately fusing the "rejected cornerstone" of Psalm 118 with the "crushing stone" of Daniel 2.16 Jesus is thereby identifying himself as this prophesied stone—the one rejected by the "builders" (the religious leaders) who will ultimately bring divine judgment ("crush") upon the very system (the fourth kingdom and its collaborators) that rejects him. The apostles, particularly Peter in Acts 4:11 and Paul in Ephesians 2:20, continue this explicit identification of Jesus as the "stone".30

D. Comparative Exegesis and the Proxy War of Interpretation

The identification of the four kingdoms is not universally agreed upon, and the debate reveals the deep hermeneutical divides.

Historical-Critical View: This view strongly contradicts the "Rome" interpretation. It argues the kingdoms are (1) Babylon, (2) Media, (3) Persia, and (4) Greece (i.e., the empire of Alexander and his successors, the Diadochi).27 This identification is predicated on the 2nd-century BC authorship date 2, where "Greece" is the final, oppressive empire from the author's perspective. In this reading, the "stone" is not a future Christ but a past event: the rise of the Hasmonean (Maccabean) dynasty, which "crushed" the Greek Seleucid kingdom.11
Rabbinic View: Interestingly, early Jewish authors like the historian Flavius Josephus agreed with the Christian identification of the fourth kingdom as Rome.20 Modern Jewish thought continues to engage the prophecy, often seeing the "stone" as the future, and still-awaited, Messianic kingdom from a Jewish, rather than Christological, perspective.26

The scholarly dispute over identifying the fourth kingdom (Rome vs. Greece) is more than mere historical pedantry. It is, in effect, a proxy war for the book's supernatural predictive power. If the fourth kingdom is Rome, as the Christological view holds 19, a 6th-century BC date and a prophecy spanning over 500 years to the time of Christ is validated.6 If the fourth kingdom is Greece, as the historical-critical view holds 31, the 2nd-century BC date is all but confirmed, and the "prophecy" becomes a vaticinium ex eventu.2 Therefore, to accept the academic-critical identification of the kingdoms is to inherently invalidate the Christological claim of long-range prediction.

III. The Son of Man: Daniel 7 and the Identity of Christ

A. Exegetical Analysis of Daniel 7:13-14

The vision in Daniel 7 parallels and expands upon Daniel 2. It features four great "beasts" (a lion, bear, leopard, and a dreadful fourth beast) rising from the sea, which again represent the four kingdoms.2 The vision then shifts to a heavenly court scene. The "Ancient of Days" (a clear reference to God the Father) is enthroned.34

The climax of the vision, and the central point for Christology, is found in verses 13-14:

"I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him. And to him was given dominion and glory and a kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him; his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which will not pass away, and his kingdom one that will not be destroyed." 1

The Aramaic phrase for "son of man," bar 'enash, simply means "a human being" or "someone".38 A crucial exegetical detail is the direction of the "coming": this figure is not coming from heaven to earth. It is a scene of ascension and enthronement, where the human-like figure approaches the Ancient of Days in heaven to be invested with authority.35

B. Christological Application: Jesus's Self-Designation

This passage is the single most important Old Testament source for Jesus's own self-understanding and teaching.

Jesus's Preferred Title: "Son of Man" is the most common title Jesus uses for himself in the Gospels, appearing over 80 times.38
A Title of Authority, Not Just Humanity: While it affirms his humanity, its primary theological weight comes from Daniel 7. It is a "very exalted title" 40 by which Jesus claims the divine authority and everlasting dominion prophesied in the vision. He demonstrates this by claiming authority "on earth to forgive sins" (Mark 2:10) 40 and to be "Lord of the Sabbath" (Mark 2:28) 41, justifying these radical claims as the Son of Man.
A Title of Eschatological Judgment: Jesus explicitly claims the "coming on the clouds" imagery from Daniel 7, but he often reverses its direction to describe his future return (Second Advent) from heaven to earth in glory and judgment.37
The Trial and Blasphemy: The title's meaning is made lethally explicit at his trial. When the high priest demands, "Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed?" Jesus replies, "I am, and you will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of Power and coming on the clouds of heaven" (Mark 14:62; Matt. 26:64).37 The high priest immediately tears his robes, crying "Blasphemy!".33 He clearly understood Jesus's statement not as a claim to simple humanity, but as a direct claim to be the divine-like, enthroned figure of Daniel 7, who rules alongside the Ancient of Days.
The Fusion of Kingdom and Cross: Jesus's most radical theological move was to fuse the glorious, reigning "Son of Man" of Daniel 7 with the "Suffering Servant" of Isaiah 53. He repeatedly taught that the "Son of Man must suffer many things" (Mark 8:31) 40 and "did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many" (Mark 10:45).45 This creation of a suffering-then-glorified Messiah was a revolutionary concept, as a passible "Son of Man" was not a pre-existing Jewish expectation.40

C. Comparative Interpretation: Individual Messiah vs. Collective Symbol

Intertestamental View: The interpretation of the "Son of Man" as a singular, pre-existent, heavenly Messianic judge predates Christianity. Non-canonical Jewish works like 1 Enoch (e.g., the Similitudes of Enoch) clearly borrow from Daniel 7 to describe such a figure.33 This shows that Jesus was stepping into an existing (though not universal) messianic interpretation of the text.
Jewish/Academic View: Many Jewish and historical-critical scholars argue that the "Son of Man" in Daniel 7 is not an individual but a collective symbol.38 In this view, the vision contrasts the beastly, inhuman gentile empires with the human ("son of man") kingdom, which is given to "the saints of the Most High" (i.e., righteous Israel).14 The text's own interpretation in Daniel 7:27 ("the kingdom... shall be given to the people of the holy ones") is seen as the explicit key to understanding the symbolic figure in 7:14.14

This very ambiguity is what likely made the title so "useful" for Jesus. It allowed him to employ a term of "strategic ambiguity".40 The title "Messiah" was politically explosive, carrying connotations of a military king to overthrow Rome.40 "Son of God" was a direct theological claim that would be immediately perilous.41 "Son of Man," however, could be used "in public... in the face of opposition" 40 because, on the surface, it could simply mean "a human being".39 This ambiguity allowed Jesus to "invest the term with his own meaning" 40 and "subtly" 44 teach his radical new paradigm of a suffering, atoning, and ultimately glorified Messiah. It was a veiled claim that was non-threatening to the masses but was a profound, and ultimately capital, claim to insiders and authorities when its Daniel 7 implications were finally made explicit.33

IV. The Seventy Weeks: Daniel 9 and the Messianic Timetable

A. Exegetical Analysis of Daniel 9:24-27

This passage, the "Seventy Weeks Prophecy," is arguably the most detailed, specific, and contested "prediction" in Christian apologetics.15

Context: The prophecy is given to Daniel after he prays for his people, having understood from Jeremiah's writings that the 70-year exile was nearing its end.6
Gabriel's Revelation: The angel Gabriel appears and gives Daniel a new prophecy, expanding Jeremiah's 70 years into "seventy 'sevens'" (Hebrew: shavuim).1 This is almost universally interpreted as 70 "weeks" of years, totaling 490 years.24
Verse 24: The Six Redemptive Goals: This 490-year period is decreed "for your people and your holy city" to accomplish six redemptive goals: "to finish the transgression, to put an end to sin, to atone for iniquity, to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal up vision and prophecy, and to anoint the most holy place".15
Verses 25-27: The Prophetic Timeline: This period is divided into three parts:

"From the time the word goes out to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until the Anointed One, the ruler, comes, there will be seven 'sevens,' and sixty-two 'sevens'".49 This is a total of 69 weeks, or 483 years.
"After the sixty-two weeks, Messiah [Anointed One] shall be cut off, but not for Himself" (or "and shall have nothing").15
Following this, "the people of the prince who is to come shall destroy the city and the sanctuary".15
"He shall confirm a covenant with many for one 'seven' [the 70th week]. In the middle of the 'seven' he will put a stop to sacrifice and offering".4

B. The Dominant Christological Interpretation

Christian exegesis sees this as a precise, mathematical prediction of the first coming of Jesus.

The Timeline Calculation:

Starting Point: The "word to restore... Jerusalem" (v. 25) is critically not identified with the decree of Cyrus (538 BC) but with the later decree of Artaxerxes I to Nehemiah (found in Nehemiah 2), which specifically concerned rebuilding the city walls. This decree is dated to 445 BC or 444 BC.7
The 483 Years: The 69 weeks (483 years) are often calculated as "prophetic years" of 360 days each (totaling 173,880 days).24
End Point: This precise calculation, most famously articulated by Sir Robert Anderson, is argued to terminate on the exact day of Jesus's Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem (c. 32/33 AD).7 This event is seen as Jesus "coming" and presenting himself as the "Anointed One, the ruler."

The "Anointed One Cut Off" (v. 26):

This is interpreted as the central prophecy of the crucifixion 24, occurring just after the Triumphal Entry, fulfilling the timeline.
The phrase "cut off" (Hebrew: karat) implies a violent, sudden, and covenantal death.48
The phrase "but not for Himself" 15 is the locus classicus for the substitutionary atonement—that the Messiah would die for others, not for any sin of his own.21
This atoning death is seen as the direct fulfillment of the goals of verse 24, especially "to atone for iniquity".6

The 70th Week (v. 27): Christian interpretation divides here:

View 1 (Historical-Messianic): The "he" who confirms the "strong covenant" (v. 27) is Jesus Christ.4 This "strong covenant" is the New Covenant established in his blood.21 His crucifixion, in the "middle of the week," is the event that "put a stop" to the need for temple sacrifices by being the ultimate, final sacrifice.21
View 2 (Dispensational/Futurist): This view is dominant in many evangelical circles.18 It inserts a "gap" or "pause" in the prophetic clock between the 69th week (Christ's arrival) and the 70th week.24 The entire Church Age (the last 2,000+ years) exists in this gap.

In this view, the "he" of v. 27 is not Christ but the Antichrist (the "prince who is to come" from v. 26).7
The 70th week is a future, seven-year "Tribulation" period, during which the Antichrist will make a covenant with Israel and then break it, setting up the "abomination of desolation".11

C. Competing Interpretations: A Scholarly Necessity

The Christological view is one of at least three major interpretations of this complex text.

Historical-Critical View: This is the academic consensus.9 The prophecy is a 2nd-century BC vaticinium ex eventu describing the Maccabean period.58

"Anointed One" (v. 25): The High Priest Joshua ben Jozedek 60 or Cyrus (a "messiah" in Isaiah 45:1).53
"Anointed One Cut Off" (v. 26): This is the key: the High Priest Onias III, who was famously murdered in 171 BC.11
"Prince Who Is To Come" (v. 26) / "He" (v. 27): The Seleucid King, Antiochus IV Epiphanes.11
"Abomination of Desolation" (v. 27): This refers to Antiochus's desecration of the Second Temple in 167 BC, when he halted sacrifices and erected an altar to Zeus.11

Rabbinic Exegesis: This view rejects the Christian timeline and calculations.13 The 490 years are often seen as the entire duration of the Second Temple era, from its (re)construction after the exile to its destruction in 70 AD.13

"Anointed One" (v. 25): Cyrus the Great, who was "anointed" by God to decree the Temple's rebuilding.13
"Anointed One Cut Off" (v. 26): This is not Jesus, but King Agrippa II (the last Hasmonean king) 13 or the High Priesthood itself, which was "cut off" by the Temple's destruction.63
"People of the Prince" (v. 26): The Roman legions.48
"Prince Who Is To Come" (v. 26) / "He" (v. 27): The Roman General (and future Emperor) Titus, who destroyed Jerusalem and the sanctuary in 70 AD.13

D. Table: Comparative Interpretations of Daniel 9:24-27

The complexity of these conflicting, yet internally consistent, interpretations is best summarized in a comparative table.

Prophetic Element

Christological (Messianic) View

Historical-Critical (Academic) View

Rabbinic (Jewish) View

"Seventy Weeks" (490 yrs)

445/444 BC - AD 32/33, then a "gap," then a future 7-year Tribulation.7

c. 587 BC - 164 BC. Coded history of the Second Temple period.11

c. 587 BC - AD 70. The entire Second Temple era.13

"Anointed One" (v. 25)

Jesus Christ (at Triumphal Entry).24

Cyrus 53 or Joshua ben Jozedek.60

Cyrus the Great.13

"Anointed One Cut Off" (v. 26)

Jesus Christ (at Crucifixion).15

High Priest Onias III (murdered c. 171 BC).53

King Agrippa II 13 or the High Priesthood.63

"Prince Who Is To Come" (v. 26)

The Antichrist 7 or Roman General Titus.11

Antiochus IV Epiphanes.11

Roman General Titus.13

"He" of v. 27

The Antichrist 11 OR Jesus Christ (confirming the New Covenant).4

Antiochus IV Epiphanes.11

Roman General Titus.13

"Abomination of Desolation"

A future act by the Antichrist 64 OR the Roman destruction of 70 AD.65

Antiochus's desecration of the Temple in 167 BC.11

The Roman destruction and desecration of the Temple in 70 AD.13

E. The Abomination as a Hermeneutical Hinge

The term "abomination of desolation," which appears in Daniel 9:27 (and 11:31, 12:11) 37, becomes a critical interpretive act performed by Jesus himself. In the Olivet Discourse (Matthew 24:15), Jesus explicitly references "the abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet" 37 and warns his disciples to look for it as a future sign, signaling the imminent destruction of Jerusalem.64

This statement is a hermeneutical lynchpin. The historical-critical school is adamant that the "abomination" was Antiochus's act in 167 BC 11; for them, it is a past event. When Jesus, in 30–33 AD, points to it as still future, he is performing an act of typological exegesis. He is signaling that the event with Antiochus was a type or pattern for a greater desolation that was about to happen again—this time at the hands of the Romans in 70 AD.65 This re-application by Jesus is what justifies (for Christian hermeneutics) detaching the prophecy from its exclusive 2nd-century BC context. It allows the prophecy to be seen as a prophetic pattern with multiple fulfillments: fulfilled historically in 167 BC, fulfilled again in 70 AD, and, for many (dispensational) interpreters, to be fulfilled a final time by the Antichrist.64

V. Typological Prophecies: Christophany and Resurrection

Beyond the major verbal predictions, Christian thought employs narrative events in Daniel as typological prefigurements of Christ.

A. Daniel 3: The Fourth Man in the Furnace

In the narrative of Daniel 3, Daniel's three companions—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego—are thrown into a fiery furnace for their refusal to worship Nebuchadnezzar's golden image.5 The pagan king, looking into the flames, is stunned. He exclaims, "But I see four men unbound, walking in the midst of the fire... and the appearance of the fourth is like a son of God" (or "a son of the gods," Dan 3:25).68

This is not a verbal "prediction" but is widely interpreted in Christian theology as a Christophany—a pre-incarnate appearance of the Son of God, Jesus Christ.8 This figure is sometimes identified with the "Angel of the Lord," who is also seen as a pre-incarnate Christ.70 The theological significance is profound: it is used to demonstrate that Christ is with his faithful people in the midst of their suffering ("in the furnace").69 It serves as a theophany 69 that prefigures the Incarnation (God with us) and his promise to be with the persecuted church.8

B. Daniel 12: The Resurrection from the Dust

The final chapter of Daniel contains the most explicit prophecy of a general resurrection in the entire Hebrew Bible.

Exegetical Analysis (Dan 12:2): The text states, "And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, Some to everlasting life, Some to shame and everlasting contempt".72
Christological Interpretation: This prophecy provides the essential Old Testament foundation for the central tenet of the Christian Gospel: the bodily resurrection.74 Jesus, who identified himself as "the resurrection and the life" (John 11:25) 75, is understood to be the one who fulfills and inaugurates this Danielic promise. His own resurrection is the "first fruit" of the great "awaking" that Daniel prophesied.
Interpretive Nuance: The term "many" is not seen as a contradiction to the New Testament's "all" (e.g., John 5:28). It is understood as a common Hebrew synecdoche, a figure of speech where a part ("many") stands for the whole ("all").72 This interpretation is supported by the fact that the text describes two distinct and "everlasting" 72 destinies, implying a universal and final judgment of all humanity.

VI. Conclusion: The Danielic Imprint on New Testament Christology

A. Synthesis: The Vocabulary of Christology

The analysis of these key passages reveals that Daniel's "use" in Christian thought goes far beyond a simple list of proof-texts. The Book of Daniel provides the essential prophetic lexicon and conceptual framework for New Testament Christology.76 Without Daniel, the New Testament authors would have lacked the primary vocabulary to explain who Jesus was and what he accomplished.

The book's prophecies are systematically mapped onto the person and work of Christ:

The "Stone" (Daniel 2) becomes the Kingdom that Christ inaugurates.16
The "Son of Man" (Daniel 7) becomes the King—Jesus's primary title for his divine authority.37
The "Anointed One Cut Off" (Daniel 9) becomes the Cross—the prophecy of his substitutionary atonement.21
The "Resurrection" (Daniel 12) becomes the Gospel—the Old Testament promise of the event that defines Christianity.72
The "Abomination" (Daniel 9, 11, 12) becomes the Timeline of Judgment that Jesus himself wields (Matthew 24:15).37

B. The Daniel-Revelation Axis

The "use" of Daniel is most explicit and climactic in the final book of the Christian Bible, the Book of Revelation.77 Revelation is, in many respects, a Christian sequel to Daniel, completing its apocalyptic trajectory.

John's vision of the glorified Christ in Revelation 1 ("his head and his hair were white like wool," "eyes like a flame of fire," "voice as the sound of many waters") is a direct and intentional literary fusion of two of Daniel's visions: the "Ancient of Days" (who has hair "white like wool") from Daniel 7 and the glorious heavenly man ("eyes like a flame of fire") from Daniel 10.79 Furthermore, Jesus is repeatedly identified in Revelation by his Danielic title, the "Son of Man" (Rev. 1:13; 14:14).43 The two books are inextricably linked as the alpha and omega of Christian apocalyptic thought.78

C. Final Analysis: The Prophetic Loop of Fulfillment

Ultimately, the New Testament's "use" of Daniel is a complex, dynamic "prophetic loop." The authors of the Gospels and Epistles, like many first-century Jews, were steeped in the apocalyptic and messianic expectations of their day, which were heavily influenced by Daniel.58 They witnessed the events of Jesus's ministry, death, and resurrection—and the subsequent destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD 65—and interpreted these events through the lens of Daniel's prophecies.

This interpretive act, in turn, fixed Daniel's meaning for all subsequent Christian history. By Jesus re-applying the "abomination" 66 and claiming the "Son of Man" title as his own 43, he defined these passages as being about him. This New Testament reinterpretation 37 is what Christian theology retroactively calls "prediction" and "fulfillment."

Therefore, the use of Daniel for the prediction of Jesus is not a simple, one-way street (Daniel -> Jesus). It is a dynamic, hermeneutical process (Daniel -> 2nd-century-BC/70-AD context -> Jesus reinterprets -> Apostles codify) that is foundational to the very formation of Christian theology and identity.

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Pieter Lamper https://www.opened-source.com